Volume 9 ; Issue 2 ; in Month : July-Dec (2026) Article No : 179
Sharma P, Fazal B, Kumar P, et al.

Abstract

Syngeneic tumour models are indispensable tools in preclinical cancer research because they allow tumour development within an intact immune system, enabling investigation of tumour–immune interactions and evaluation of immunotherapies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of three widely used syngeneic tumour models: 4T1, CT26, and MC38. Their origins, genetic backgrounds, tumour establishment, biological characteristics, immunological profiles, and principal research applications are discussed. The 4T1 model, established in BALB/c mice, is characterized by aggressive tumour growth, spontaneous metastatic potential, and an immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment, making it particularly valuable for investigating metastatic breast cancer and mechanisms of treatment resistance. CT26, a BALB/c-derived colorectal carcinoma model, demonstrates measurable tumour growth and moderate immunogenicity and is widely utilized for studying immune-cell infiltration, cytokine responses, cancer vaccines, and immune checkpoint modulation. MC38, established in C57BL/6 mice, exhibits comparatively high immunogenicity and substantial immune-cell infiltration, making it an important model for investigating immune checkpoint blockade, particularly PD-1/PD-L1-directed therapies. The review further discusses approaches for tumour establishment and characterization, evaluation of therapeutic responses, applications in cancer immunotherapy, and the advantages and limitations of these models. Finally, emerging approaches involving multi-omics, advanced immune profiling, tumour microenvironment modulation, and complementary humanized models are discussed as strategies to improve their translational relevance. Collectively, 4T1, CT26, and MC38 provide complementary and biologically distinct platforms for investigating cancer progression, tumour–immune interactions, therapeutic responses, and the development of novel anticancer and immunotherapeutic strategies.

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